Medical Oncology Basic Terms

The NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms
Contains more than
4,000 terms
related to cancer
and medicine.

A

abdomen The part of the body between the chest and hips, which contains the stomach, liver, intestines, bladder and kidneys.

acute Happening suddenly then subsiding after a short period of time. Brief and severe.

adenocarcinoma [a-den-o car-ci-no-ma] A cancer that involves the cells lining the walls of many different organs of the body. It starts in glandular tissue or has a gland like appearance. For example, it is a type of lung cancer that accounts for about one-quarter of all lung cancers. This cancer starts in the bronchial glands that are found in the mucous membrane lining the smaller airways.

adenoma [a-den-o-ma] A benign tumour (not a cancer) that starts in gland tissue or has a gland-like appearance. An adenoma may become malignant (cancerous) if it is not treated.

adjuvant treatment [ad-ju-vant] Treatment that aids or assists the main treatment, for example, adjuvant radiotherapy or chemotherapy may be used before surgery to shrink a tumour, or after the main treatment to eradicate any remaining cancer cells. Also called adjuvant therapy.

adrenal glands Triangular glands which cover the top of each kidney. The glands produce adrenaline and some other hormones.

advanced cancer Cancer that has spread to other parts of the body and/or is unlikely to be cured.

AIDS (acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome) [AIDS] (HIV) A viral disease (HIV) transmitted in blood, semen and vaginal fluid that affects the body's immune system so that it can no longer fight disease. Because of the weakened immune system, normally mild infections take hold and become serious. Certain opportunistic cancers may occur, for example Kaposi's sarcoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.

alimentary tract [al-i-ment-a-ry] The long passage in which food passes through the body and is digested. The alimentary tract consists of the mouth and throat (pharynx), oesophagus, stomach, bowel (small and large intestine) and anus. Also called the alimentary canal, or digestive tract: see gastrointestinal tract.

allogeneic Tissue from a donor.

alopecia [al-o-pe-cia] Loss of hair from the head or body. Alopecia often occurs as a result of chemotherapy . Hair lost in this way usually regrows after treatment is completed.

anaemia [a-nae-mi-a] (adj. anaemic [a-nae-mic]) A reduction in the amount of haemoglobin in the blood, or a reduction in the number of red blood cells (which contain the haemoglobin). Anaemia decreases the amount of oxygen carried to the body's tissues. Anaemia may cause tiredness and fatigue, breathlessness, paleness and a poor resistance to infection

anaesthetic [an-aes-thet-ic] A drug administered to stop a person feeling pain, usually during a medical procedure. A local anaesthetic is injected to numb a limited area of the body, often to perform a biopsy. A general anaesthetic causes the person to lose consciousness. With a spinal anaesthetic (spinal block, epidural), the anaesthetic is injected into the space around the spinal cord to block all feeling from nerves below that area. Spinal anaesthetics are sometimes used to treat cancer pain.

analgesic [an-al-ge-sic] A drug that is used to relieve pain. Some can also be given to reduce fever.

angiogenesis The formation of new blood vessels to support tissue. Angiogenesis enables tumours to develop their own blood supply, which helps them to survive and grow.

angiogram [an-gi-o gram]/angiography [an-gi-og-raphy] An x-ray of blood vessels which have been injected with dye. An angiography is a diagnostic test in which a radio-opaque dye is injected into the blood stream and x-rays are then taken. The dye makes the blood vessels show up on the x-rays, and any abnormal vessels can be seen. The x-ray is called an angiogram or, sometimes, an arteriogram.

antibiotic [an-ti bi-ot-ic] A drug, for example, penicillin, used to treat diseases caused by bacteria . Some chemotherapy drugs are sometimes called anti-tumour antibiotics.

antibody [an-ti bo-dy] Part of the body's immune system. Antibodies are proteins made by the blood in response to an invader (antigen) in the body. They help protect against viruses, bacteria and other foreign substances. Each antibody only acts against one particular antigen, thus antibodies produced in response to, say, the mumps virus will defend the body against mumps, but no other disease.

anticoagulant A substance that prevents blood clotting. It can be used when separating stem cells from other blood cells during stem cell transplantation

antiemetic [an-ti e-met-ic] A drug (or medicine) that helps to control nausea and vomiting, including that caused by cancer or its treatment.

antifungal [an-ti fung-al] A drug or ointment used to treat or prevent fungal infections such as Candida albicans. People receiving chemotherapy may be advised to use antifungals as a preventive measure.

antigen [an-ti-gen] Common antigens include viruses, bacteria, foreign cells, pollen, and dust. When antigens invade the body, the blood is stimulated to produce antibodies to fight them. This reaction is part of the body's immune system.

anus [a-nus] The opening at the end of the anal canal through which faeces (bowel motions) are passed.

apheresis The process in which blood is temporarily taken from the body, one or more parts of it removed, and the blood transferred back into the body.

areola [a-re-o-la] The brownish or pink area that surrounds the nipple of the breast.

arterial embolisation A form of treatment for kidney cancer. It is usually used for people who are not well enough to cope with surgery. The artery which feeds the diseased kidney is blocked, causing the kidney and the tumour in the kidney to die.

artery A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart.

asbestosis [as-bes to-sis] A chronic lung disease caused by breathing in asbestos fibres.

ascites [as-cit-es] A buildup of fluid in the abdomen, making it swollen and bloated, which can be caused by the presence of cancer within the abdomenal cavity.

aspiration 1. Inhaling or breathing something other than air into the lungs (when something 'goes down the wrong way'). 2. Removing fluid or air from within the body by sucking it through a needle into a syringe. Fluid may be aspirated from a breast lump. This fluid is usually examined under a microscope to provide an accurate diagnosis .

atrophy [a-tro-phy] The wasting away of an organ or tissues.

atypical ductal hyperplasia A condition that can occur in the lining of the milk ducts in the breast. Sometimes called ductal hyperplasia with atypia.

autologous Tissue from oneself.

axilla [ax-il-la] (adj. axillary) / axillary lymph nodes [ax-il-la-ry lymph nodes] Armpit. Axillary lymph nodes are located deep in the armpit.

axillary clearance [ax-il-la-ry clear-ance] Removal of the axillary lymph nodes during breast cancer surgery

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bacteria [bac-te-ri-a] (sing. bacterium) A widely distributed group of microorganisms which live in soil, water, air, plants, animals and humans. Many do not harm their hosts, and some are actively helpful. But some cause disease by producing poisons.

barium [bar-i-um] The common name for barium sulphate. Often used in x-rays of the gastrointestinal tract because it shows up clearly on x-rays (is radio-opaque). Before the x-ray is taken, the barium is swallowed or introduced into the bowel via the anus , depending on the part of the gut being investigated. When the x-ray is taken, the barium highlights the shape of the gut.

barium enema [bar-i-um en-e-ma] Barium sulphate is passed into the lower bowel through the anus. X-rays are then taken and the barium clearly outlines the bowel, showing up any abnormalities.

basal cell carcinoma (BCC) [ba-sal cell car-ci-no-ma] The most common and least dangerous type of skin cancer. BCC grows slowly and rarely spreads. It usually appears on the face as a small round or flattened lump in the skin. It will be red, pale or pearly in colour, easily detected and readily cured if treated promptly. If left untreated, it may form deep ulcers sometimes known as rodent ulcers.

BCG Bacillus Calmette-Guerin, a bacterium responsible for tuberculosis, which is used to treat some bladder cancers.

benign Benign cells are not able to spread like cancer cells.

benign fibrocystic changes [be-nign fi-bro cys-tic changes] Benign changes within the breast that can cause lumpiness, thickening or tenderness. The lumps are usually due to cysts which may need to be biopsied or have a needle inserted for draining. They are not cancer and do not develop into cancer.

bilateral [bi lat-er-al] On both sides. Thus, bilateral breast cancer is cancer in both breasts

bile A fluid made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder . Also known as 'gall'. It helps the digestion of fats.

bile duct The duct through which bile from the liver passes to the duodenum .

biopsy [bi-op-sy] The removal of a small sample of tissue from the body for examination under a microscope to help in diagnosing a disease. A needle biopsy, which can be done in a doctor's rooms, involves using a fine needle to suck up a few cells. An open biopsy (or surgical biopsy) involves a small operation, and is usually done under general anaesthetic : see diagnosis , frozen section .

bisphosphonates Drugs that help to make weak bones stronger and less likely to break.

bladder A sac with an elastic wall of muscle; found in the lower part of the abdomen. The bladder stores urine until it is passed from the body. It forms part of the urinary tract .

bladder reconstruction The surgical creation of a new 'bladder' from part of the bowel.

blood The fluid that circulates throughout the body via arteries and veins. It carries food, oxygen, hormones and other chemicals to the body's cells, and helps remove waste products from the cells. It is also important in fighting infection. Blood consists of various different types of blood cells and platelets suspended in a liquid called plasma . Plasma also contains substances to make blood clot, to prevent bleeding. An average adult male has about 5 litres of blood: see white blood cells , red blood cells .

blood cells Any of the cells that form part of blood . There are two main types: red blood cells (erythrocytes) which make up the vast majority, and white blood cells (leucocytes). Most blood cells are formed in the bone marrow ; a few are formed in the spleen and lymph glands . Also known as blood corpuscles.

blood count Numbers of the different types of blood cells present in a given volume of blood . Usually the red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leucocytes) are counted, and sometimes the platelets . Normally each cubic millimetre of blood contains about 5 million red blood cells in males, and 4.5 million in females. A complete blood count (CBC) checks all of these. The level of haemoglobin may also be checked. A differential blood count counts the different types of white blood cells present. A full blood examination (FBE) is a more extensive test.

blood type Red blood cells have distinguishing features which enable them to be identified into groups. The four main types are A, B, AB, and O. Each person has only one type, referred to as their blood group. Before a blood transfusion , both donor and patient blood must be typed, then cross-matched to ensure they are compatible . For bone marrow transplants, it is necessary to type white blood cells to ensure that the donor and recipient are compatible.

bone cancer Cancer that begins in the hard substance of the bones (rather than in the bone marrow ). Bone cancer is not common. It occurs in people of all ages, slightly more often among teenagers. Treatment usually involves surgery and/or radiotherapy . The outlook (prognosis ) varies, depending on the type of cancer. Bones are also a very common site for secondary cancers (metastases ), which are not true bone cancers, but extensions of a primary cancer in another part of the body.

bone marrow Soft, spongy material that fills the cavities inside bones. Bone marrow produces most of the body's blood cells , so disease of the bone marrow also affects the blood.

bone marrow biopsy The removal of a small amount of bone marrow for examination under the microscope.

bone marrow transplantation The replacement of diseased bone marrow with healthy bone marrow or to regenerate bone marrow that has been destroyed by high dose chemotherapy . This may be done to treat acute leukaemia. Firstly, high doses of chemotherapy and sometimes radiotherapy are given to destroy the diseased (leukaemic) bone marrow. This is then replaced with new, healthy bone marrow. An autologous transplant uses the patient's own bone marrow, collected when the disease is under control (in remission ) and stored for use when the disease becomes active. In an allogeneic transplant, the new bone marrow is obtained from a compatible donor, usually a brother or sister: see tissue typing , stem cell .

bone scan A picture of the bones that can show cancers, other abnormalities and infection. When a mildly radioactive substance is injected, cancerous areas in the bone pick up more of the substance than normal bone. These show up as hot spots (darkened areas) on pictures taken with a special camera. Most of the radioactive material is gone from the body within a few hours: see nuclear medicine .

bowel Also called the intestine or gut; the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the anus . The bowel is a tube about 8 metres long that lies curled up in the abdomen. It completes the digestion and absorption of food, and gets rid of the remaining wastes. It is divided into two main parts: the small intestine and the large intestine (also called the large bowel ). The small intestine consists of three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum. Then comes the large intestine, made up of the colon and the rectum , and ending at the anus .

bowel cancer A cancer that starts on the inside wall of the bowel. The vast majority of bowel cancers develop in the large bowel. They are often known as colorectal cancer. Bowel cancer is the second most common cancer for both males and females in South Australia. It is uncommon under the age of forty, and is slightly more common in men than in women. Where possible, treatment is surgery, with or without radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Surgery sometimes involves creating a colostomy (an artificial opening for the bowel on the wall of the abdomen), but in about 90 per cent of cases this is either not necessary or only a temporary measure.

brachytherapy [bra-chy ther-a-py] The use of radioactive implants to treat cancer; a form of radiotherapy .

brain tumour Brain tumours may be benign (not cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Malignant brain tumours are comparatively rare, but are the most common cancer in children; they also occur in young adults. There are various types, named according to the type of cells involved; the outlook (prognosis ) for different types varies considerably. In adults, the main types are glioblastoma, meningioma, and astro-cytoma. In children, the main types are medulloblastoma, astrocytoma, glioblastoma, ependymoma, and cranio-pharyngioma. Brain tumours are treated with surgery and/or radiotherapy . The brain is also a common site for secondary tumours that have come from a cancer elsewhere in the body. These are known as cerebral (or brain) secondaries; they are not true brain tumours.

breast The gland in a woman that produces milk. Each breast consists of a number of lobes (divisions) which contain milk sacs where the milk is produced. The lobes are surrounded by fatty tissue. Milk ducts (small pipes) lead from the lobes and join together to form fifteen or twenty larger ducts which carry milk to the nipple.
breast cancer A cancer that starts in the breast tissue. Most breast cancers begin in the milk ducts : these are called intraductal cancers. A few, like lobular cancer, start in the milk sacs or lobes . In Australian women, breast cancer is the second most common cancer after skin cancer; it is rare in men. Women with a family history of breast cancer are at greater risk . See lobular cancer .

breast implant A pouch filled with saline solution (sterile salt water) used to build a new breast in cases where the woman's breast has been removed because of breast cancer . Implants come in various shapes and sizes and are chosen to suit the individual: see breast reconstruction . Also called a breast prosthesis .

breast reconstruction The surgical rebuilding of a breast after mastectomy (removal of the breast). This may be done at the time of the original mastectomy operation or some time later. The surgeon may build a new breast using skin and muscle from another part of the body (a flap reconstruction), and/or an artificial breast implant may be used to create a breast. It may also involve using a tissue expander to stretch the skin gradually so there is enough to cover a breast implant: see reconstructive surgery .

breast self-examination (BSE) A simple procedure by which a woman can examine her breasts thoroughly to detect any lump or change that may be a sign of breast cancer .

bronchoscope [bron-cho scope] An instrument used to look into the air passages of the lungs . It consists of a long, thin, flexible tube that is inserted through the nose or mouth and sent down the windpipe (trachea ). It can also be used to take a small sample of tissue from the lungs for biopsy: see endoscope , fibre optics .

bronchus [bron-chus] (pl. bronchi) Any of the larger air passages of the lungs beyond the windpipe (trachea ).

BSE see breast self-examination.

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CA 125 Tumour markers
Calcification Small deposits of calcium seen as dots on a mammogram.

cancer A general term for abnormal cell growth and its uncontrolled spread. Cancer cells maygrow into a lump called a malignant tumour . They may invade and damage surroundingtissue. Some may also break away from the original (primary) cancer asnd travel in the bloodor lymphatic system to other parts of the body, where they form secondary tumours (metastases). The five main types of cancer are carcinomas, sarcomas, myelomas,lymphomas and leukaemia . Cancers at different sites in the body are discussed individually.

carcinogen [car-cin-o-gen] (adj. carcinogenic) Any substance that can cause cancer.

carcinoma [car-ci-no-ma] Cancer that starts in epithelial tissue, that is, the tissue that forms the base of the skin and the lining of the body's inner surfaces, bowel, reproductive organs,etc).

carcinoma in situ Cancer that involves only the cells in which it began and has not spread to nearby tissues.
cardiovascular system [car-di-o vas-cu-lar sys-tem] Consists of the heart and a network of blood vessels. The cardiovascular system is responsible for circulating the blood around thebody, which carries nutrients and oxygen to the tissues and removes waste products. Alsocalled the circulatory system.

CAT scan see CT scan

catheter [cath-e-ter] A hollow, flexible tube through which fluids can be passed into the bodyor drained from it. Sometimes used for specialised tests. A urinary catheter is sometimesused for a time after surgery to drain urine from the bladder.

cautery Destroying tissue by burning.

cell Cells are the basic building block of the body. They are microscopic in size. They contain cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed within the cell membrane. The human body consists of millions of cells of many different types, each type specialised to perform a particular function. Skin cells, for example, are flattish and arranged in sheets; nerve cells are long and slender: see differentiated cells.

cell division The process by which cells divide in two to reproduce and replace themselves.

central nervous system (CNS) The brain and spinal cord.

cervical [cer-vi-cal] Of either the neck or the cervix .

cervical smear [cer-vi-cal smear] see Pap test .

cervix [cer-vix] The narrow passage that connects the uterus with the vagina. Sometimes called the neck of the womb .

chemotherapy [che-mo ther-a-py]The use of particular drugs (cytotoxic drugs ) to kill cancer cells or slow down their growth (control cancer). Chemotherapy can also be used to relieve symptoms. The drugs used also affect normal cells and can cause undesirable side effects ,so the dosage must be carefully controlled. Most side-effects can be controlled or prevented, and most are temporary.

chronic Describing an illness that continues over a long time, with slow changes.

chronic lymphoid leukaemia (CLL) [chron-ic lym-phoid leu-kae-mia] CLL is a type of leukaemia that usually occurs in older people; it is rare in people under the age of 35. People with CLL have too many immature lymphocytes in their blood . Also called chronic lymphatic leukaemia or chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.

circulatory system The vessels and organs that enable blood to flow around the body.

clinical trial Clinical trials test new cancer treatments or may compare existing treatments to determine the best way of improving health outcomes. The research is called a trial because it is uncertain whether a new treatment is better than existing ones.

colitis [col-i-tis] Inflammation of the colon and rectum . The symptoms are usually diarrhoea and pain in the lower abdomen. In ulcerative colitis, ulcers also form in the area.

colon [co-lon] The colon is the part of the bowel between the end of the small intestine and the rectum .

colorectal cancer [co-lo rec-tal can-cer] see bowel cancer .

colostomy [col-os-to-my] A surgical operation in which the colon is cut and brought to the surface of the abdomen to form an artificial opening (stoma) which allows the bowel to pass faeces for collection into a removable colostomy bag secured over the stoma.

colposcopy [col-pos-co-py]/colposcope [col-po-scope] The use of a colposcope to examine the vagina and cervix : see endoscope.

compatible The term used to describe the people donating and receiving a tissue transplant or blood transfusion . If the two are compatible, their tissues and blood are very alike, which means that the recipient's body is less likely to reject the transplant by forming antibodies against it: see tissue typing .

congenital [con-gen-i-tal] Existing from birth. Congenital diseases or deformities may have been contracted in the womb or may have been passed on genetically by either or both parents. They are usually recognised at birth, but some congenital conditions, though present at birth, may not be recognised for some time.

core needle biopsy The core biopsy removes a sliver of tissue for pathology examination.

cross-matching see blood typing .

CT scan [C-T scan] Computerised tomography scan (formerly CAT scan) is a technique for constructing pictures from cross-sections of the body by x-raying the part of the body to be examined from many different angles. Radio-opaque dyes are usually injected or swallowed first to enable the body structures to show up clearly under x-ray. The x-ray information, which is fed directly into a computer, is used to build up detailed cross-section pictures of the body.

cure A cure in cancer means that there is no evidence of cancer being present and a person's illness has gone completely. The length of time for cancer to be considered cured varies, but at least five years remission is a minimum.

cutaneous [cu-ta-ne-ous] Of the skin .

cyst An abnormal sac or closed cavity in the body. A cyst may be small or large, and may contain liquid or semi-solid material. There are many different types of cyst, arising in different parts of the body, with different causes.

cystectomy [cyst-ec-to-my] Surgical removal of the bladder .

Cystoscope An instrument that allows the doctor to see inside the bladder. It also allows removal of tissue samples or small tumours. Cystoscopy is the name for this procedure.

cystitis [cyst-i-tis] Inflammation of the bladder .

cytotoxic drugs [cy-to tox-ic] Drugs or medicines that damage or destroy cells. Cytoxic drugs are used in chemotherapy, used to treat cancer.

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dermis One of two main layers that make up the skin. The dermis is the second layer, which contains the roots of hairs, glands which make sweat, blood and lymph vessels and nerves.

detection The discovery of an abnormality or disease in the body. 'Early

detection' is the discovery of an abnormality at an early stage when it is readily treated and, in the case of cancer , much more likely to be curable.

diagnosis The identification and naming of a person's disease. Many factors are taken into account, including previous medical background, symptoms, findings from a physical examination, blood tests, other laboratory tests, x-rays and possibly a biopsy . differentiated cells Mature cells that perform a specific function in the body, for example, blood cells , bone cells, or skin cells, and are clearly different from other types of cell: see cell .

digital rectal examination (DRE) A procedure in which the doctor or nurse inserts a gloved finger into the patient's rectum to examine this area. It is also possible to examine the prostate gland through the wall of the rectum.

disseminated cancer [dis-sem-i-na-ted can-cer] Cancer that is no longer confined to one part of the body, but has begun to metastasise, or spread, throughout the body.

diuretic [di-u-ret-ic] A substance that helps the body to get rid of excess fluid by passing more urine.

donor The person giving tissue or organ for transplanting. The person receiving it is the host .

duct A small tube in the body, usually one that carries the substances secreted from glands . In the breast , the milk ducts carry milk from the milk sacs to the nipple.

ductal carcinoma [duc-tal car-ci-no-ma]see intraductal carcinoma .

duodenum The first part of the small bowel. It receives bile from the gall bladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreasdysplastic moles [dys-plas-tic] Abnormal moles that are not cancer but may turn into cancer. Also called dysplastic naevi.

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electrosurgery The use of electrodes, which are devices (like wires) that conduct electricity, to remove diseased tissue, like tumours.endocrinologist [en-do-crin ol-o-gist] A doctor specialising in the diagnosis and treatment of hormone disorders.

endometrial cancer [en-do me-tri-al can-cer] see uterine cancer.

endoscopy [en dos-co-py]/endoscope [en-do scope] Endoscopy is the procedure of looking inside the body using an endoscope, which is an instrument consisting of a thin, flexible tube with a light at the end that is inserted into a body opening (mouth, anus, vagina, urethra) to enable a direct view of structures inside the body. Many endoscopes can also be used to take a sample of tissue for biopsy, or to remove small growths: see fibre optics.

enema [en-e-ma] A procedure to wash out faeces from the bowel, to insert drugs for treatment, or, in the case of a barium enema , to examine the bowel under x-ray .

engraft When transplanted bone marrow begins to produce red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

enzyme Proteins that are essential for the normal functioning and performance of the body.

epidermis [ep-i-der-mis] One of two main layers that make up the skin. The epidermis is the surface layer, which contains basal cells, squamous cells—which contain keratin, a protective substance that resists heat, cold and the effects of many chemicals—and melanocytes—which produce keratin.

epidural anaesthetic [ep-i-du-ral an-aes-thet-ic] see anaesthetic.

esophagus [e-soph-a-gus] see oesophagus.

extravasation [ex-tra va-sa-tion] Where blood or lymph leaks and spreads from the vessels into the surrounding tissues, as a result of injury or allergy. Extravasation of chemotherapy drugs can occur when the drug leaks out of the vein when chemotherapy is being administered intravenously. Some chemotherapy can cause damage to the tissues around the site of extravasation.

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fallopian tube [fal-lo-pi-an]The tube that carries ova (eggs) from the ovary to the uterus . Each woman has two Fallopian tubes, one from each ovary.

false positive A test result that wrongly indicates that a particular disease or condition is present.
febrile [fe-brile] Relating to or affected by fever (a 'temperature').

fever A rise in body temperature above the normal (37°C). It is usually caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

fibre optics The use of long, flexible fibres, usually made of very fine clear glass or plastic, to transmit light and images. Techniques involving fibre optics are often used to look at structures inside the body that would otherwise be inaccessible without surgery: see endoscope .

fibroadenoma [fi-bro ad-e-no-ma] A solid, benign lump (not a cancer ) made up of fibrous and glandular tissue. Many breast lumps found in younger women are fibroadenomas.

fibrocystic breast disease [fi-bro cys-tic] see benign fibrocystic changes .

fibroid [fi-broid] A benign growth that may develop in the wall of the uterus . Fibroids are common, especially in women over fifty. Some become very large, and may cause bleeding and pain, though they usually shrink after menopause. They do not need to be removed unless they are causing problems. Also called fibroid tumour, uterine fibroma , fibromyoma.

fibroma [fi-bro-ma] A benign tumour (not a cancer ) that forms in connective tissue.

fibrosarcoma [fi-bro sar-co-ma] A malignant tumour (a cancer ) that starts in connective tissue. Fibrosarcomas are found in people of all ages; they may be congenital . They occur most commonly in the leg, though they may be in any organ . Fibrosarcomas in soft tissue have a considerably better outlook(prognosis ) than those starting in bone.

fistula [fis-tu-la] An unwanted hole or opening between two hollow parts of the body such as the intestine and the stomach , or between a hollow organ and the outside, for example, a hole in the skin . A fistula can be caused by infection, the breakdown of a wound after surgery, an ulcer , or a cancer .

frozen section A sample of tissue obtained in a biopsy is frozen, then sliced very thinly and the slices (frozen sections) are examined under the microscope.

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gall bladder A pear-shaped organ on the underside of the liver where bile is stored. Bile is transferred from the gall bladder to the duodenum via the bile duct .
gamma rays A form of radiation that comes from a radioisotope. Gamma rays are commonly used in radiotherapy and also in some radioisotope scans to treat cancer .

ganglion [gang-li-on] (pl. ganglia) A thin-walled, harmless cyst or non-cancerous swelling that may appear in the tendons or joints, especially at the wrist.

gastrectomy [gas-trec-to-my] The removal of the stomach , or of part of it, by surgery.

gastrointestinal tract [gas-tro in-tes-tin-al] The gut. It starts at the stomach and includes the large intestine and small intestine , (also called the large bowel and small bowel). See bowel.

gastroscope [gas-tro-scope] A thin, flexible, tube-like instrument that is used to see into and take photographs inside the stomach . This process is called a gastroscopy. A gastroscope can also be used to take samples of tissue for biopsy and to remove small growths: see endoscope , fibre optics .

gene The tiny factors that govern the way the body's cells grow and behave. Each person has a set of many thousands of genes inherited from both parents. Genes are found in every cell of the body.

giant cells tumour A tumour that occurs in bone. Giant cells tumours may be benign (not a cancer ) or malignant (a cancer); malignant giant cells tumours usually develop from benign ones. They most often occur in the long bones of the leg, but may occur anywhere: see bone cancer .

gland (adj. glandular) An organ or group of cells that makes certain fluids (hormones , saliva, sweat) that are used in the body or excreted.

glioblastoma [gli-o bla-sto-ma] One of the most malignant of brain tumours . It occurs in children and adults: see glioma .

glioma [gli-o-ma] Any tumour that starts in the connective tissue (the glia) of the nervous system. They range from slow-growing benign tumours to cancers that grow rapidly to invade surrounding tissues. The term is sometimes used to describe all tumours of the brain and spinal cord.

goitre A swelling in the neck due to enlargement of the thyroid gland . One form, toxic nodular goitre, sometimes develops into thyroid cancer.

graft Any organ or tissue that is transplanted to replace a part. The transplantation may come from one part of a person's body to another, or from another person.

granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) A protein that stimulates the growth and maturation of granulocytes.

growth factor A substance that stimulates cells to reproduce and rapidly multiply.

gynaecological oncologist [gy-nae co-log-i-cal on-col-o-gist] A doctor who specialises in treating women diagnosed with cancer of the reproductive organs.

gynaecologist [gy-nae-col-o-gist]A doctor who specialises in conditions affecting women, particularly conditions of the reproductive system

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haem(o)-, haemat(o) - Of the blood .haematology [hae-ma-tol-o-gy] The branch of medicine that studies the blood . A doctor specialising in diseases of the blood is called a haematologist.

haematoma An accumulation of blood in the tissues that clots to form a solid swelling.

haematuria [hae-ma tu-ri-a] Blood in the urine.

hepatoblastoma [he-pat-o bla-sto-ma] A type of liver cancer that occurs in children, often confined to one lobe of the liver . In such cases, it may be surgically removed.

histology [his-tol-o-gy] The study of body cells and of the structure of body tissues, using a microscope.

HIV see AIDS .

Hodgkin's disease see lymphoma .

hormone (adj. hormonal) A substance which has a specific effect on the way the body works. Made in very small amounts by a gland , various hormones help to regulate and coordinate growth, metabolism and reproduction. They are distributed in the bloodstream.

hormone receptors Indicators on the surface of some cancer cells that suggest the cancer depends on hormones to help it grow, and it may thus respond to hormone therapy : seeoestrogen receptor test , progesterone receptor test .

hormone replacement therapy (HRT) Female hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) given to women after the menopause (change of life) to replace the hormones no longer produced by the ovaries. HRT is often prescribed after ovarian cancer surgery.

hospice care, palliative care Care that provides for all the medical and nursing needs of the patient for whom cure is not possible, and for all the psychological, social and spiritual needs of the patient and family, for the duration of the patient's illness, and includes bereavement care.

host The person receiving a transplanted tissue or organ .

hot spot Injected radioisotopes travel via the bloodstream to a cancer in the body where they show up as radioactive spots (hot spots) during bone scans : see nuclear medicine .

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [hu-man im-mu-no de-fic-ien-cy vi-rus, H-I-V] see AIDS .

hypercalcaemia The presence of an abnormally high level of calcium in the blood, usually due to the breakdown of bone. This can cause nausea, pain, thirst and confusion.

hypernephroma [hy-per neph-ro-ma] see renal cell carcinoma .

hyperplasia [hy-per pla-si-a] The increased growth or production of normal cells in part of the body. This may occur normally in some conditions, such as when the breasts enlarge during pregnancy. However when it occurs in the lining of the uterus (endometrial hyperplasia), it may develop into cancer of the uterus (uterine cancer ).

hyperthermia [hy-per ther-mi-a] 1. Greatly increased body temperature. 2. The use of heat to kill cancer cells. It is sometimes used to enhance the effect of radiotherapy . Many doctors feel hyperthermia has not been proved to be an effective treatment.

hysterectomy [hys-ter ec-to-my] The surgical removal of the uterus and the cervix

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ileal conduit A small 'pouch' created from a piece of the bowel to hold urine. It takes the place of the bladder. A stoma allows urine collected in the ileal conduit to flow into a bag.

immune system The body's natural defence system. It protects against anything it recognises as an 'invader', for example bacteria, viruses, transplanted organs and tissues, tumour cells and parasites.
immunocompromised [imm-u-no com-pro-mised] This means the immune system is not working properly, possibly as the result of disease or a genetic condition, or it may be a side-effect of drugs (medicines), for example, some chemotherapy drugs used in cancer treatment. It can also be a side-effect of radiotherapy if a large area is treated.

immunosuppression [imm-u-no sup-pres-sion] When the body's immune system is deliberately suppressed (for example, when a person receives an organ or tissue transplant) by the use of immunosuppressive drugs or medicines given to reduce the possibility that the immune system in the host body will reject the new organ or tissue. A drug (medicine) is considered immunosuppressive if it reduces the body's resistance to infection and other foreign bodies. However, a side-effect of immunosuppression is that the person is also more likely to develop infections and cancers of the skin or lymph tissue .

immunotherapy [imm-u-no ther-a-py] A treatment that attempts to use the body's own defences to fight cancer by trying to strengthen the immune system so it will destroy the cancer cells.

implant [im-plant] see radioactive implant .

incidence The number of new cases of a disease occurring during a given period (usually one year) in a specific population, for example, in Victoria the incidence of cancer (excluding basal and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin) in 1994 was about 364 per 100,000 men and 270 per 100,000 women.

incontinence 1. Loss of control over the bladder and urine; wetting. 2. Inability to control bowel movements.

infiltration Where cancer cells spread into surrounding tissue. Also called local invasion .

inflammatory carcinoma [in-flam-ma-to-ry car-ci-no-ma] A type of breast cancer that usually presents with a noticeable warmth and reddening of thebreast skin. There may also be puckering of the skin and swelling of the breast.

informed consent A legal standard that requires a patient to be fully informed about the potential risks and benefits of therapies such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy and the procedures of surgery before undergoing such therapy or surgery. Once they are aware of the procedure(s), the patient signs a form giving medical staff permission to proceed.

infusaport [in-fu-sa-port] see intravenous access device .

infusion The slow release of a substance into a blood vessel or into tissue beneath the skin . Drugs or intravenous feeding may be deliverd this way: see intravenous access device .

insulin A substance in the pancreas which regulates the amount of glucose (sugar) in the blood. If the body does not produce enough insulin, diabetes will develop.

interferons [in-ter-fer-ons] Proteins produced by the body that can help the immune system fight cancer. Interferons can also slow the growth of cancer cells or make them act like normal cells. These proteins can be made in a laboratory and used in immunotherapy.

interleukins Proteins produced by the body that can help the immune system to fight cancer. Interleukins stimulate the growth of the white blood cells that can kill cancer cells. These proteins can be made in a laboratory and used in immunotherapy.

internal radiation Radiotherapy using radioactive implants .

intestine [in-tes-tine] see bowel .

intraductal carcinoma [in-tra duc-tal car-ci-no-ma] The most common type of breast cancer , which begins in the milk ducts : see breast . Also called ductal carcinoma , intraductal cancer.

intraductal papilloma [in-tra duc-tal pap-ill-o-ma] A papilloma (benign growth, not a cancer ) in the milk ducts of the breast . May develop into breast cancer : see precancerous condition .

intravenous (IV) [in-tra ve-nous] Into a vein. An intravenous drip gives drugs directly into a vein.

intravenous access device [in-tra ve-nous ac-cess de-vice]A system for giving drugs directly into a large vein near the heart. It is used particularly for chemotherapy drugs (which can damage smaller veins), blood or nutrition (intravenous feeding). It may also be used to take blood samples. Cook's catheter and Hichman's catheter are two forms of intravenous access device. Porta cath is the trade name for a form of intravenous access device carried on the patient's body. Also known as drug delivery system, central venous catheter, central line.
intravesical chemotherapy Chemotherapy in a fluid, which is put into the bladder through a tube into the urethra.

invasive cancer [in-va-sive can-cer] A cancer that has started to invade the tissues surrounding it.

irradiation [ir-ra-di-a-tion] Exposure to any form of radiant energy (or radiation ) including heat, sunlight, x-rays , gamma rays . Radiotherapy uses irradiation with x-rays or gamma rays to treat cancer .

IV see intravenous .

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jaundice A disease caused by increased amounts of bile in the blood. This causes the skin and the whites of the eyes to turn yellow. It also causes tiredness and loss of appetite.

jejunum [je-ju-num] One of three portions of the small bowel , below the duodenum and leading into the ileum.

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Kaposi's sarcoma [Ka-po-si's sar-co-ma] Sarcoma of unknown tissue origin which appears on the skin , in the oral cavity, lungs and visceral cavity.

kidney cancer Most cancers of the kidney are renal cell carcinomas (also known as hypernephromas), a type of adenocarcinoma that usually occurs in adults.

kidneys The two organs in the abdomen that remove waste from the blood (as urine).

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laparoscopy [lap-a-ros-co-py], laparoscope [lap-a-ro-scope] The process of looking into the abdomen using a laparoscope in order to establish a diagnosis, particularly of liver , bowel and pelvic conditions: see endoscopy , fibre optics .

large bowel Consists of the colon and rectum : see bowel. Also called large intestine.

large cell carcinoma A type of lung cancer that usually develops in the airways and is characterised by large rounded cells . It accounts for about 16 per cent of all lung cancers.

laryngeal carcinoma [la-ryn-ge-al car-ci-no-ma] Cancer of the larynx . This is considerably more common in men than in women. Most cancers of the larynx occur on the vocal cords ; hoarseness is an early symptom. Many can be cured if diagnosed at an early stage: see laryngectomy .

laryngectomy [la-ryn-gec-to-my] A total laryngectomy is the surgical removal of the larynx or voice box . A partial laryngectomy is the removal of part of the larynx: the voice is preserved, though it may be slightly changed.

larynx [la-rynx] The voice box , or Adam's apple, which sits in the front of the neck. It contains the vocal cords. During swallowing, the vocal cords close together to prevent food and saliva entering the windpipe. They also vibrate together to produce voice.

laser An instrument that produces an intense beam of light used in surgical procedures. It can work on a very small area with great precision without damaging surrounding tissue. It can be used to remove abnormal cells .

lesion [le-sion] Any abnormality in tissues of the body caused by disease or injury.

leucocyte (or leukocyte) [leu-co-cyte] see white blood cell .

leukaemia [leu-kae-mi-a] Cancer that affects the bone marrow and organs that manufacture blood (lymph nodes, spleen). In leukaemia, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells (known as leukaemic blasts) are produced, and this suppresses the production of normal blood cells . Leukaemia may be acute , progressing rapidly over days or weeks, or chronic , progressing slowly over months or years: see white blood cells .

lipoma [lip-o-ma] A soft, fatty benign tumour (not a cancer ) that lies directly under the skin . Lipomas may be very small or as big as a grapefruit, and are very common. They are sometimes removed for cosmetic reasons.

liposarcoma [lip-o sar-co-ma] A cancer that forms in fat cells , liposarcomas are common in soft tissue - most commonly the thigh - but rare in bone. It rarely occurs in people under the age of thirty.

liver A large organ in the upper right side of the abdomen, directly under the diaphragm. It is made up of four connected lobes , and weighs up to about 1.6 kg. Among its many functions are breaking down old red blood cells to form bile, producing proteins needed for blood clotting, regulating the level of many hormones , storing sugar and regulating the amount of sugar in the blood , storing vitamins A, B12, D and K, and storing and metabolising fats.
liver cancer Cancer that begins in the liver is uncommon in Australia. Treatment may be surgery and/or chemotherapy . However it is common to find secondary tumours (metastases ) in the liver, that is, cancers that have spread to the liver from another part of the body. These 'liver secondaries' are not true liver cancers, and treatment will depend on the site and type of the primary or original cancer.

liver function tests A simple blood test that gives information about how the liver is functioning.

liver scan A test used to discover the size, shape and position of the liver and to detect any tumours : see nuclear medicine .

lobe A major division of an organ of the body, often separated from other lobes by deep splits. The liver is made up of four lobes, the right lung has three lobes, and the left lung, two.

lobectomy [lo-bec-to-my] The surgical removal of a lobe of the liver or a lung.

lobular cancer [lob-u-lar can-cer] A breast cancer that starts in the milk sacs in one of the lobes of the breast .

local excision The surgical removal of a localised cancer , that is, one that has not spread beyond its original site: see lumpectomy .

local invasion see infiltration .

local recurrence see recurrence .

lumbar puncture A diagnostic test in which a sample of cerebrospinal fluid is taken from the area around the spinal cord and examined under the microscope. The fluid may show evidence of tumour , infection, or inflammation in the central nervous system .

lumbar spine The section of backbone in the small of the back, just above the buttocks.

lumpectomy [lump-ec-to-my] The surgical removal of a lump, particularly in relation to breast cancer to describe the removal of a breast lump with some of the surrounding healthy tissue, without removing the whole breast : see local excision .

lumpy breast disease see benign fibrocystic changes .

lungs The two sponge-like, pinkish-grey organs in the chest cavity. The lungs wrap around the heart and the oesophagus . Air enters the lungs via the windpipe. Oxygen processed from this air passes into the bloodstream.

lung cancer Cancer that starts in the lung or in the lining of the air passages leading to the lung. There are several different types of lung cancer that are named according to the type of cell involved.

lung function tests see pulmonary function tests .

lymph A clear fluid that contains white blood cells , antibodies, and wastes carried from the body tissues, lymph is present throughout the body in a network of lymphatic vessels.

lymph glands see lymph nodes .

lymph nodes Small bean-shaped structures scattered along the lymphatic vessels, particularly in the neck, armpit and groin. They filter the lymph to remove bacteria and other harmful agents to prevent them from entering the bloodstream. Lymph nodes also produce lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell . Also called lymph glands (although they are not true glands ). Lymph node negative test results show no cancer cells in the lymph nodes. Lymph node positive test results show that cancer cells are present in the lymph nodes.

lymph tissue see lymphoid tissue .

lymphatic system, lymphatic vessels The lymphatic system is part of the immune system, which protects the body against 'invaders', like bacteria and parasites. The lymphatic system is a network of small lymph nodes connected by very thin lymph vessels, which branch into every part of the body.

lymphocyte A type of white blood cell formed in lymph nodes. It is part of the body's immune system which helps to fight infection.

lymphoedema [lymph-oe-de-ma] Swelling caused by a buildup of lymph ; this happens when there is a insufficient draining in lymphatic vessels or lymph nodes , and can occur following some cancer treatments.

lymphoid tissue [lym-phoid] Tissue where lymphocytes and antibodies are made. The lymph nodes , tonsils, thymus and spleen are made up of lymph tissue; it also forms part of other tissues. It is important in fighting infection. Also called lymph tissue.

lymphoma [lym-pho-ma] Lymphomas are divided into two major types: Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Most arise in a lymph node, but sometimes a non-Hodgkin's lymphoma may begin in lymph tissue in the stomach, bone or small intestine. Some non-Hodgkin's lymphomas tend to appear simultaneously in several parts of the body.

M(Top)

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A diagnostic test that uses a combination of magnetism and radio waves to build up detailed cross-section pictures (or images) of part of a person's body. The test involves lying on a couch inside a metal cylinder (which forms a very large magnet) that is open at both ends. It may take up to one hour to complete, but is completely painless.

malignant Cancerous. Malignant cells can spread (metastasise) and can eventually cause death if they cannot be treated.

malignant tumour A tumour that is cancerous. A malignant tumour may invade and destroy surrounding tissues and can spread to other parts of the body: see benign.

mammary dysplasia [mam-ma-ry dys-pla-si-a] see benign fibrocystic changes.

mammography [mam-mog-ra-phy] A method of x-ray for early detection of breast cancer. Mammography may detect breast cancer before a lump can be felt. The x-ray itself is called a mammogram.

mastectomy [mas-tec-to-my] The surgical removal of a breast or part of a breast to treat breast cancer. Radical mastectomy is rarely done now. The operation most frequently performed is the modified radical mastectomy in which the entire breast and some lymph nodes in the armpit are removed, but no muscle. In subcutaneous mastectomy the breast tissue is removed but the skin and nipple are left, and can later be used to reconstruct the breast: see breast reconstruction.

medical imaging The use of a wide range of techniques to provide images of the inside of the body. In some hospitals, radiology and nuclear medicine are both part of a medical imaging department: see scan.

melanin The brown pigment which gives the skin its colour. Its role is to protect the body against the damaging effect of the ultraviolet rays present in sunlight and tanning machines in solariums.

melanocytes Cells in the epidermis and elsewhere that produce melanin.

melanoma [mel-a-no-ma] A very malignant form of skin cancer. Melanomas can occur anywhere on the body, including in the eye and the mucous membranes. A melanoma looks like a mole or freckle. It usually has an irregular outline and may vary in colour from black to almost white and in the early stages it is quite flat. The main symptom is a change in size, shape or colour over a period of weeks or months. A melanoma may start in an existing freckle or mole, but more often they start in normal-looking skin.

membrane A thin layer of tissue which covers a surface, lines a cavity or divides a space or organ.

meningioma [men-in-gi o-ma] A slow-growing tumour that arises in the meninges, the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. Some meningiomas are malignant : see brain tumour .

metastasis [me-ta-sta-sis] (pl. metastases) An extension of the primary tumour . It develops in a part of the body away from the original (primary) cancer . When cancer cells break away from the original tumour and are carried by the lymph and blood systems to other parts of the body they are said to metastasise. Even though the metastasis may be far away, it is not a new cancer: see cancer . Also known as secondary tumour or metastatic tumour.

metastasise [me-ta-sta-sise] see metastasis .

microcalcifications [mi-cro cal-ci fi-ca-tions] Tiny flecks of calcium that may be present in the breast that will show up on a mammogram. A cluster of microcalcifications suggests that breast cancer may be present.

milk duct/milk sac see breast .

mole A term that loosely describes any pigmented (coloured), fleshy growth on the skin .

Monilia [mon-il-i-a] Former name for the fungus now called Candida albicans.

morbidity Sickness, illness.

morphine A strong and effective painkiller which is used commonly to treat people with cancer who have pain.

MRI see magnetic resonance imaging .

mucositis [mu-co-si-tis] see stomatitis .

multiple myeloma [my-e-lo-ma] A cancer of the plasma cells . Abnormal plasma cells are produced in large numbers in the bone marrow . This limits production of red blood cells and white blood cells , so that people are often anaemic and more likely to develop infection. The abnormal plasma cells can also destroy normal bone tissue, causing the bones to become very brittle and fracture easily (see osteoporosis ). The first symptom of multiple myeloma is usually bone pain, especially in the back.
mutation A change in the genetic material of a cell . This may occur spontaneously or be caused by something outside the cell (a mutagen).

myeloid [my-e-loid] Of the bone marrow .

myeloma [my-e-lo-ma]A cancer that arises in plasma cells that are found in the bone marrow : see multiple myeloma

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nadir The lowest point. Sometimes used to describe the lowest point reached by the blood count after it has been affected by chemotherapy .

nasogastric tube A fine plastic tube that passes in through the nose, down the throat and directly into the stomach. It is used to feed someone who has temporary problems with eating or swallowing.

nebuliser [neb-u-li-ser] A device that turns liquid into a fine mist or spray often used to administer drugs that relieve breathing difficulties.

neck dissection see radical neck dissection .

nephrectomy [neph-rec-to-my] Surgical removal of a kidney. When cancer is the cause of removal, the adrenal gland is also removed.

neoplasm [ne-o-plasm] see tumour .

nerve block A method of numbing a part of the body by injecting a local anaesthetic to block the nerve impulses, including pain, coming from that area.

nervous system The vast network of specialised nerve cells that carry information in the form of nerve impulses to and from all parts of the body in order to bring about bodily activity. It includes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), which coordinates activity, and the peripheral nervous system, which comprises all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord.

neuroblastoma [neu-ro bla-sto-ma] A malignant tumour or cancer that occurs in children which starts in nervous system tissue.

neurofibroma [neu-ro fi-bro-ma] see neuroma .

neurofibromatosis [neu-ro fi-bro-ma to-sis] A congenital condition where there are many benign tumours growing from the fibrous coverings of nerves. They sometimes become malignant . This condition is often associated with a tumour of the adrenal gland.

neuroma [neu-ro-ma] A slow-growing benign tumour (not a cancer ) growing from a nerve. The most common type is an acoustic neuroma, which appears on the acoustic nerve that goes to the ear. They may cause deafness if not treated. Also called neurofibroma, neurilemmoma, neurinoma, Schwannoma.

neurosurgeon [neu-ro sur-geon] A surgeon who specialises in operations on the nervous system , particularly the brain and spinal cord.

node, nodule Both words describe a swelling or lump that may be normal or abnormal: see lymph node .

non-Hodgkin's lymphoma see lymphoma .

nuclear medicine The use of small doses of radioisotopes to examine or scan the structure and/or function of various parts of the body. Tumours may show up because they take up a different amount of the isotope to surrounding tissue. Radioisotopes lose their radioactivity very quickly, so they are not damaging to the body's tissues. They are also rapidly excreted from the body: see PET scan , liver scan , hot spot .

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oat cell carcinoma see small cell carcinoma .

oedema [oe-de-ma] Swelling caused by an excessive accumulation of fluid in the tissues of the body, i.e. outside the circulatory system.

oesophageal cancer [oe-soph-a-ge-al can-cer] Cancer of the oesophagus . The most common symptom is difficulty swallowing.

oesophagus [oe-soph-a-gus] The gullet; the tube that connects the throat with the stomach , down which food passes.

P(Top)

paediatrics [pae-di-at-rics] The branch of medicine concerned with children and their diseases.

Paget's disease 1. A chronic disease of the bones that occurs in elderly people and causes bone deformities. It is not a cancer , but it can sometimes lead to osteosarcoma , a type of bone cancer . 2. A condition that affects the nipple of the breast . It resembles eczema, and is always associated with cancer of the milk ducts .

palate The roof of the mouth, consisting of the hard (or bony) palate in the front and the soft (muscular) palate at the back.
palliative care When it is agreed that cure is no longer possible, palliative care, which does not try to cure the disease, aims to promote comfort, relieve symptoms, and maximise the quality of life. It seeks to address the full range of physical, emotional and spiritual needs of both patient and family:see hospice care .

palpation The act of feeling with the hand. Doctors frequently use palpation to examine the body.

pancreas [pan-cre-as] A thin, lumpy gland about 15 cm long that lies behind the stomach in the upper left part of the abdomen. The pancreas produces enzymes that help to digest food. It also produces insulin, which controls the amount of sugar in the blood .

pancreatic cancer [pan-cre-a-tic can-cer] Cancer of the pancreas . It is more common in men and in older people, and is rarely found under the age of 55. There are two types: cancer of the endocrine pancreas, and cancer of the exocrine pancreas. Pancreatic cancer is often difficult to diagnose, as the symptoms (pain in the abdomen, loss of appetite, nausea, jaundice , weight loss) may also be caused by many other conditions.

pap test A simple scan test that can detect changes in the cells of the cervix (opening of the uterus). These changes are not cancer , but may develop into cancer of the cervix if not treated (see precancerous condition). Simple treatment can prevent the cancer from developing. The test involves collecting a few cells from the surface of the cervix and examining them under a microscope. All women should be tested regularly once they become sexually active. Short for Papanicolaou test, after the man who designed it, it is also called Pap smear, smear test, cervical smear.

papilloma [pap-il-lo-ma] A benign growth (not a cancer ) that may occur on the skin or on a mucous membrane. Papillomas may also occur in the bladder and in the milk ducts of the breast . Warts are a type of papilloma.

papillary cancer [pa-pil-lar-y] The most common type of bladder cancer. It starts on the bladder wall and grows into the bladder, attached by a stem.

paraprotein A substance produced when plasma cells multiply abnormally. At high levels, it can be detected in the blood and urine. Doctors can monitor paraprotein levels to see if treatments are working.
parotid cancer [pa-ro-tid] see parotid tumour .

parotid gland One of a pair of glands , located in front of each ear, that release saliva into the mouth.

parotid tumour A tumour in the parotid gland . Many parotid tumours are benign (not a cancer ), and are usually painless and slow growing. Parotid cancers, however, tend to grow rapidly. Sometimes a tumour that appears to be benign for many years will suddenly become malignant (a cancer).
partial cystectomy The surgical removal of part of the bladder.

partial laryngectomy [par-tial la-ryn-gec-to-my] see laryngectomy .

partial nephrectomy The surgical removal of part of a kidney.

pathologist A specialist who examines cells and tissue under a microscope.

pathology The study of the nature, cause and development of disease by examining samples of blood , urine, faeces and body tissues, using x-rays and other techniques, and carrying out autopsies.

patient-controlled analgesic (PCA) Pain relief that patients can control themselves. The patient is attached to an intravenous drip, and when necessary, can press a small device that will deliver a dose of a pain-relief drug through the drip. Delivery is followed by a lockout period before the device will deliveranother dose. PCA is often used to control pain after surgery.

PEG Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy, also simply called gastrostomy. A tube inserted through the skin and abdomen wall, directly into the stomach, so that liquid foods can be fed directly into the stomach.

pelvic examination When the doctor examines the organs of the pelvis by feeling them with fingers inserted into the vagina and/or rectum.

peripheral stem cell rescue Where stem cells are collected from a person's bloodstream, to be transplanted as a treatment for acute leukaemias , lymphomas and other cancers . PSCH may be used as well as, or instead of, collecting bone marrow for transplantation. The procedure is painless, but it may take several hours. Also called peripheral stem cell harvest (PSCH).
peritoneum [per-i to-ne-um] (adj. peritoneal) Membrane that lines the wall of the abdomen and covers the organs within it.

PET scan (positron emission tomography) A technique that is used to build up clear and detailed pictures of the body. The person is injected with a glucose solution containing a very small amount of radioactive material. The scanner can 'see' the radioactive substance, and this shows where healthy cells are using the glucose in the body. Damaged or cancerous cells show up as areas where the gluscose is being used.

pharynx [pha-rynx] The throat; a tube with walls of muscle lined with mucous membrane that extends from the back of the nose to the top of the oesophagus .

plasma A straw-coloured liquid that forms the fluid part of blood . The blood cells and platelets are suspended in the plasma. It also contains substances to make the blood clot, to restrict bleeding: see serum .

plasma exchange A procedure to remove some constituents or elements from the blood, when the paraprotein level is high and interfering with blood circulation.

plasmapheresis [plas-ma phe-re-sis] A process that may be used in the treatment of multiple myeloma and macroglobulinaemia, a related disease. The blood is pumped slowly from the body through a vein in one arm and passed through a machine that spins off the plasma and the abnormal proteins it contains. The remaining blood cells , along with replacement plasma from a donor , is then returned to the body through a vein in the other arm.

plastic surgery A branch of surgery concerned with reconstructing damaged or deformed parts of the body, or rebuilding parts that have been lost: see reconstructive surgery .

platelets [plate-lets] Tiny disc-shaped structures in the blood . Their several functions are all to do with the blood's ability to clot and stop bleeding. Also known as thrombocytes.

pneumonectomy [pneu-mo-nec-to-my] The removal by surgery of an entire lung.

polyp [po-lyp] An abnormal growth projecting from one of the body's mucous membranes. The most common places they are found include the nose, colon , and bladder . Polyps are generally benign , but one type that occurs in the bowel , an adenoma , can become malignant (cancerous) over a period of many years.

porta cath [por-ta cath] Trade name for an intravenous access device .

precancerous condition A growth that is not cancerous (malignant), but which may become a cancer if it is not treated, such as adenomas , which may develop into bowel cancer .

primary tumour A malignant tumour (a cancer) starts in one site of the body where it is known as the primary tumour. At a later stage, cancer cells may break away from it and be carried to other parts of the body, where they may lodge and increase to form secondary tumours or metastases .

progesterone receptor test [pro-ges-ter-one] A test that determines whether a cancer relies on the hormone progesterone for its growth. If so, it may respond to hormone therapy : see hormone receptors .

prognosis [prog-no-sis] 1. The outlook or expected outcome of a disease. 2. The length of time the person is expected to live.

prostate [pros-tate] A gland about the size of a walnut found only in men, which produces the bulk of the fluid that makes up semen. In elderly men, the prostate often becomes enlarged, blocking the neck of the bladder and making it difficult to pass urine.

prostate cancer Cancer of the prostate gland is the most common cancer in men. It rarely occurs under the age of fifty-five. Symptoms include problems with urinating, and blood in the urine.

prostatectomy [pros-ta-tec-to-my] Surgical removal of the prostate gland.

prostate-specific antigen (PSA) Tests for PSA, prostate acid phosphatase (PAP) and serum alkaline phosphatase (SAP) are routinely used to diagnose prostate cancer . The individual tests are not sufficiently reliable, but together they provide a good indication of whether or not cancer is present.

prosthesis [pros-the-sis] An artificial substitute for a missing part of the body, such as an arm, leg, breast, eye, tooth and so on. A prosthesis may be functional (an artificial leg), or purely cosmetic (a glass eye): see breast implant.

prosthodontist A specialist dentist who orders and fits the prostheses made by a maxillofacial technician to replace tissue of the mouth or face that has been removed.

protein One of a group of organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Proteins are made in the body and are an essential part of it. The cells of muscles, tissues, organs, etc, are protein. So are enzymes and hormones

protocol A formal, detailed treatment plan used for groups of people with similar medical problems. Doctors follow set treatment protocols so that the results of different types of treatment can be compared, and the natural course of a disease may be better understood.

PSA see prostate-specific antigen .

PSCH see peripheral stem cell rescue .

pulmonary [pul-mon-a-ry] Of the lungs.

pulmonary function tests Tests that measure the amount of air moving in and out of the lungs during breathing, and evaluate the person's ability to get oxygen from the air into the blood . The tests can also indicate whether there is an obstruction in the air passages. Also called lung function tests.
pump A device that regulates the rate at which a drug is delivered. A pump is frequently attached to an intravenous drip to deliver chemotherapy drugs, or drugs needed after surgery. These pumps are relatively large, and sit beside the patient's bed. Small portable pumps, also known as syringe drivers, may be used in palliative care to deliver pain-relief drugs. The Grasby pump is the most common of these.

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radiation Any form of energy that spreads or radiates from its source, including heat, light (visible, ultraviolet and infrared), gamma rays and x-rays . Only a few forms of radiation are radioactive.

radiation oncologist A doctor who specialises in the use of x-rays and other forms of radiation to treat cancers as well as other conditions. Previously called radiotherapist, which term is now used to describe the technician (not a doctor) who delivers or plans radiotherapy.

radiation therapist The health professional (not a doctor) who administers radiotherapy . Sometimes called a therapy radiographer.

radiation therapy see radiotherapy .

radical cystectomy Surgery for people with bladder cancer. For women, the operation removes the bladder and may also remove the uterus, Fallopian tubes, ovaries, front of the vagina and urethra. In men, it removes the bladder, prostate gland and urethra.

radical neck dissection An operation that removes the lymph nodes in the neck and some of the surrounding structures (including muscle), usually as part of surgery for cancer of the mouth, throat (pharynx ) or voice box (larynx ).

radical nephrectomy The main form of treatment for kidney cancer. It removes the diseased kidney and-if they are also diseased-the adrenal gland, surrounding fatty tissue and nearby lymph nodes .

radical surgery An operation that removes a tumour plus surrounding tissue and lymph nodes . The term usually refers to extensive surgery aimed at completely curing the disease.

radioactivity [ra-di-o ac-tiv-i-ty]The nuclei of some atoms are unstable and break down to form simpler, more stable nucleii, and in the process, they release energy (radiation ). This activity is known as radioactivity, and substances that act in this way are said to be radioactive.

radioactive implant [ra-di-o ac-tive im-plant] A radioactive substance (a radioisotope) that is placed directly into or around a cancer within the body to enable the radiation it gives off to kill the cancer cells. Implants are most commonly used for cancers of the cervix , uterus (womb ), breast , mouth, and prostate .

radioactive iodine iodine that gives off radiation.

radiographer [ra-di-o-gra-pher] A technician trained in taking x-ray pictures of parts of the body to diagnose illnesses and disorders.

radiologist [ra-di-ol-o-gist] A doctor who specialises in the use and interpretation of x-ray photographs and other imaging devices (CT scans ) in diagnosing disorders and diseases.

radiology [ra-di-ol-o-gy] The branch of medicine concerned with the use of radiation , (including x-rays ) and radioactive substances in diagnosing and treating disease. Some radiology departments are now called medical imaging departments, as they may employ techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging that do not use radiation.

radio-opaque [ra-di-o o-paque] Having the ability to block x-rays . Because x-rays will not pass through a radio- opaque substance (eg barium ) such substances show up as clear white on x-ray photographs (in contrast to flesh, which appears grey or black). Radio-opaque substances or dyes are given to patients in many specialised x-ray tests (barium x-rays, angiography, intravenous pyelogram, lymphogram) in order to show up structures within the body.

radioresistant [ra-di-o re-sis-tant] Resistant to the effects of radiation . A cancer is said to be radioresistant if it does not respond adequately to radiotherapy , that is, if it is not sufficiently damaged or destroyed by radiotherapy.

radiosensitive [ra-di-o sen-si-tive] Sensitive to the effects of radiation . A cancer is said to be radiosensitive if it responds to radiotherapy , i.e. the radiation makes it smaller or totally destroys it.

radiotherapy [ra-di-o ther-a-py] The use of particular forms of radiation , usually x-rays or gamma rays , to kill cancer cells or injure them so they cannot grow and multiply. Radiation can be directed at a cancer from outside the body, or a radioactive source may be implanted into the cancer and the area around it. Sometimes called radiation therapy.

receptors see hormone receptors .

reconstructive surgery Surgery to rebuild part of the body that has been destroyed or removed using the patient'sown tissues. It may involve moving skin, cartilage, muscle or bone from other parts of the body. Reconstructive surgery is often used to create a new breast following surgery for breast cancer, or to rebuild parts of the face, nose or mouth following cancer surgery. It is usually carried out by a plastic surgeon: see plastic surgery, breast reconstruction .

rectum [rec-tum] The last 12-15 cm of the large bowel, which opens to the outside at the anus.

recurrence [re-cur-rence] The reappearance of the cancer after a period of remission .

red blood cells One of the two main types of cells present in the blood . Red blood cells make up 45 per cent of blood volume. Their main function is to receive oxygen from the lungs to carry it to tissues throughout the body, and carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs to be breathed out. The red colour comes from haemoglobin, the substance that actually carries the oxygen: see blood cells . Also known as erythrocytes.

regional involvement The spread of cancer from its original site to nearby areas, for example, where a breast cancer has spread to the lymph nodes in the armpit.

registrar In a hospital, the registrar is an experienced doctor responsible for the care of a number of patients with the assistance of junior doctors (residents). A registrar may work with one or more senior surgeons, physicians or consultants.

regression In cancer, the stage when the signs and symptoms are disappearing and the person is recovering. It generally means that the tumour is getting smaller, or that tests (scans, blood counts ) are showing improvement.

rehabilitation Programs that help restore people to independence and a full, productive life after illness or injury. Rehabilitation may involve physical restoration such as the use of prostheses, physiotherapy, occupational therapy programs and/or speech pathology, counselling and emotional support, and employment retraining.

relapse The return of a disease after a period of improvement or remission .

remission A complete remission is a period of good health when all signs or symptoms of the disease have gone, although if the disease is cancer, there may still be some cancer cells in the body. A partial remission means that some of the signs and symptoms are gone. Sometimes called stable disease .

renal cell carcinoma [re-nal cell car-ci-no-ma] The most common cancer of the kidney, it is a type of adenocarcinoma . The cancer may be present for some time before the person notices any symptoms, which include fever , pain and blood in the urine. Also called hypernephroma.

renal sarcoma A rare form of cancer that affects the connective tissues of the kidney.

renal tissue Kidney tissue.

resection The surgical removal of part of an organ or another structure.

respiratory system The parts of the body involved in breathing, including the nose, mouth, throat, trachea(windpipe), and lungs . The purpose of the respiratory system is to get oxygen from the air into the bloodstream and so to the tissues of body, as well as to get rid of the waste carbon dioxide.

risk A measure of how likely a person is to develop a particular disease. Where people are at high risk of developing a particular disease, this does not mean that the disease is certain to develop, but that they have a greater-than-average chance of getting it. Similarly, people at low risk are less likely than others to develop it, though it could still occur. Therefore, risk factors are any action that increases a person's chance of developing a particular disease, for example, overexposure to the sun is the major risk factor for skin cancer, and risk reduction describes techniques to reduce the chances of developing a particular disease, for example, not smoking will reduce the risk of getting lung cancer .

RNA (ribonucleic acid) [ri-bo nu-cle-ic a-cid] One of the two nucleic acids (the other is DNA) found in the nucleus of every cell . RNA's function is to make proteins .

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salivary gland cancer [sa-li-va-ry] A cancer of one of the salivary glands, most commonly the parotid glands (see parotid tumour). It usually appears as a slow-growing lump in the cheek.

sarcoma [sar-co-ma] A malignant tumour (a cancer) that starts in connective tissue.

scan The term covers a variety of techniques for obtaining images of structures or organs inside the body. Nuclear medicine techniques use radioisotopes, x-ray techniques may use radio-opaque dyes. Other types of scans include ultrasound scans, magnetic resonance imaging. Scans are very useful in diagnosing cancer and finding out how far it has spread.

screening Examining and/or testing a large number of people who have no symptoms of a particular disease, to identify anyone who may have that disease. This enables the disease to be treated at an early stage, when cure is more likely. Examples include Pap tests to detect precancerous changes of the cervix , and mammography, to screen women for early breast cancers.

secondary tumour see metastasis.

seminoma [se-mi-no-ma] A cancer of the testes. It occurs in an older age group than teratomas (the other main testicular cancer), and is treated by surgical removal of the testis (orchidectomy ). If it has spread to other parts of the body, chemotherapy or radiotherapy may be used: see testicular cancer.

serum [se-rum] The clear liquid portion of blood that is left if the blood cells, platelets and clotting substances (including fibrinogen) are removed. If the clotting substances are not removed, the clear fluid is called plasma.

serum alkaline phosphatase (SAP) [se-rum al-ka-line phos-pha-tase] see prostate-specific antigen .

side effects Many drugs (medicines) or treatments may affect the patient in ways other than and in addition to those intended. These are side-effects. Some side-effects are not a problem, but some are unpleasant, for example, chemotherapy may cause hair loss, radiotherapy and chemotherapy may cause nausea.

sigmoidoscopy [sig-moid os-co-py] Examination of the rectum and first 20-25 cm of the colon using a sigmoidoscope, a long flexible tube with a light at the end that is inserted gently through the anus : see endoscope, fibre optics.

sinus [si-nus] An air cavity within a bone.

skin The outer covering of the body. It consists of two layers: the outer layer (epidermis ) consists largely of cells containing keratin, which resists heat, cold and many chemicals. The epidermis protects the body from injury and invasion by parasites. The inner layer (dermis) contains the roots of hairs, glands that make sweat and oil, blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves. The skin's colour comes from the brown pigment called melanin, which is made in cells called melanocytes in the lower part of the dermis. The melanocytes manufacture melanin when they are exposed to sunlight.

skin cancer The most common form of cancer in Australia. It affects all age groups from adolescence upwards. Skin cancer rates in Australia are higher than anywhere else in the world. There are three main types: basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma. All start in different parts of the outer layer of skin. Skin cancer is caused by the ultraviolet rays in sunlight.

small cell carcinoma A type of lung cancer that is strongly associated with cigarette smoking. About one-quarter of all lung cancers are small cell carcinomas. It causes few symptoms in the early stages, and spreads quickly. Also called oat cell carcinoma.

small intestine The part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the colon . Also called the small bowel.

smear test see Pap test .

solar keratosis [so-lar ker-a-to-sis] (pl. keratoses) A flat, slightly red, scaling area that may appear on skin that is exposed to sunlight, especially the face, hands and forearms. A solar keratosis is not a skin cancer, but people with solar keratoses often develop skin cancers as well. A few keratoses develop into skin cancers (see precancerous condition). About 40-55 per cent of Australians over the age of forty have one or more solar keratoses.

speech pathologist A health professional who diagnoses and treats people who have problems in communicating, either in being understood themselves and/or in understanding others. They also help people who have difficulty with swallowing. In the context of cancer, speech pathologists are most likely to work with those who have been treated for cancer of the larynx, throat, mouth, or brain. Also called speech therapist .

spinal cord tumours Tumours that start in the spinal cord (primary spinal cord tumours) are rare. Secondary tumours (tumours that have spread from another part of the body) are more common. Either way, because the spinal cord is contained within the bone of the spine, a small tumour can press on it and cause pain and paralysis. If possible, tumours on the spinal cord are removed by surgery, with or without radiotherapy
spleen An organ in the upper part of the abdomen on the left side, below and behind the stomach. The spleen produces lymphocytes, filters blood, stores blood and destroys cells that are ageing. It can mount an immune response to infections in the blood system.

splenectomy [sple-nec-to-my] Surgical removal of the spleen. This is sometimes done in the treatment of leukaemia, particularly chronic myeloid leukaemia, or in lymphomas when the spleen becomes enlarged and destroys too many normal blood cells . It is also the treatment for cancer of the spleen. Once the spleen is removed, other parts of the body take over its functions.

sputum cytology test [spu-tum cy-tol-o-gy test] A test that looks at sputum (phlegm), which contains cells from the lungs and air passages, that has been coughed up from the lungs. The test involves studying these cells under the microscope.

squamous cell carcinoma [squa-mous cell car-ci-no-ma] A type of cancer that is common in skin and can also be found in the mucous membrane lining areas within the body such as the mouth, vagina, etc. It forms in the squamous (scaly) epithelium, the outer layer of both skin and mucous membranes. As a skin cancer, it occurs on areas of the body most often exposed to the sun, that is, the head, neck, hands and forearms. It starts as scaly red areas that grow rapidly, over months. They bleed easily and may form ulcers or sores that do not heal. It is a less common skin cancer than basal cell carcinoma, but is more serious, grows faster and may spread to other parts of the body.

stable disease see remission .

staging For most cancers, the treatment used will depend on how far the cancer has spread, that is, the stage the disease has reached. It is important to assess this accurately. This assessment is called staging and is done by using various investigations such as x-rays, scans and biopsies.

stem cell A type of 'parent' cell from which all the different types of mature blood cells evolve. Most stem cells are found in bone marrow, with small numbers also found in blood. When doctors take bone marrow to use in a transplant, it is the stem cells they want. When stem cells are added to a patient's bloodstream, they will migrate to the interior of certain bones and start to produce cells that eventually become mature red blood cells, white blood cells or platelets : see bone marrow transplantation.

sterile In the non-reproductive sense, it means free of bacteria and refers particularly to medical equipment, dressings, etc.

stoma [sto-ma] An artificial opening in the body that has been created surgically, for example, where the colon or ileum is connected to a wall of the abdomen to form an opening through which wastes (faeces/urine) are passed, or the trachea is brought to an artificial opening in the neck, through which the patient then breathes: see colostomy, laryngectomy, tracheostomy.

stomach Part of the alimentary tract (gut); a sac-like structure just below the diaphragm (at about waist level). When food is swallowed, it passes first to the stomach, where the gastric juices start to digest it. After about one hour, the partly digested food moves on to the small intestine.

stomach cancer One of the ten most common cancers, more common in men and with increasing age. The symptoms are often vague and may also be caused by many other conditions. Treatment in the early stages is usually by surgery.

stomal therapist [sto-mal ther-a-pist] A health professional trained to help patients care for a colostomy or ileostomy. Also called enterostomy therapist.

stomatitis [sto-ma ti-tis] When the mucous membrane lining the mouth becomes inflamed and ulcers form. Stomatitis is a common side-effect of some chemotherapy drugs. Also called mucositis .

subacute [sub a-cute] A subacute illness is one that progresses faster than chronic illness, but not fast enough to be classed as acute.

subcutaneous infusion [sub-cu-ta-ne-ous in-fu-sion] A fluid (usually a drug) is released slowly into the body through a needle inserted just beneath the skin .
subcutaneous mastectomy [sub-cu-ta-ne-ous mas-tec-to-my] Surgical removal of breast tissue from beneath the skin , in which the skin and nipple remain in place: see mastectomy.

survival rate The percentage of people diagnosed with a particular disease who are still alive after a given length of time, say five years, which is a common measure of success in cancer treatment.

suture [su-ture] 1. n. A stitch used to close a wound or surgical cut. 2. v. To stitch closed a wound or cut.

syringe driver A small, portable pump that is used in palliative care to deliver pain relief and other drugs (often a mixture of two or three drugs). The whole pump will fit neatly in a small bag, and it holds enough drugs for one day.

systemic treatment [sys-tem-ic] Treatment that is directed at the body as a whole, rather than at individual parts or organs .

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A hormonal treatment that blocks the action of oestrogen in the breast.

TENS see transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation.

teratoma [ter-a-to-ma] A tumour madetamoxifen  up of a number of different types of tissue, none of which is normally found in the area where the tumour occurs. A teratoma may be benign (not a cancer) or malignant (a cancer). Benign teratomas may become malignant. They occur most often in the testis and ovary ; they may occur in children though most frequently in adults: see testicular cancer.

terminal An illness is described as terminal when the person is expected to die of that illness within months or weeks. Patients receiving hospice care are usually in the terminal phase of an illness

testicular cancer [tes-tic-u-lar can-cer] Cancer of the testis: a rare disease that occurs most often in men aged between 20 and 35. The most common cancers of the testis are seminomas (70 per cent) and teratomas (25-30 percent). Many testicular cancers can now be cured.

testosterone [tes-tos-ter-one] The main male sex hormone. It is produced by the testes, and stimulates male sexual activity and the growth of other sex organs including the prostate.

thoracic spine [thor-ac-ic] The part of the backbone (spine) to which the ribs are attached; the part behind the chest.

thrombocytopenia [throm-bo cy-to pe-ni-a] A decrease in the number of platelets in the blood which causes blood to take longer than usual to clot when there is bleeding. In cancer, thrombocytopenia may occur when cancer cells replace normal cells in the bone marrow, or as a result of chemotherapy.

thrombosis [throm-bo-sis] The formation or presence of a blood clot. When this occurs inside a blood vessel, it can block the flow of blood. In the brain, a blockage causes a stroke; in the heart, it can cause a heart attack; elsewhere in the body, it can damage nearby tissues.

thymus [thy-mus] An organ below the neck, above and in front of the heart. In infants, it controls development of lymphoid tissue and the immune response. In adults its function is uncertain.

thyroid gland [thy-roid] A large gland in the neck, with two lobes that wrap around either side of the windpipe (trachea ) just below the voice box (larynx ). It secretes thyroid hormone, which regulates the rate at which the body uses food and oxygen, and the rate at which various organs function.

tissue Refers to a collection of cells which are specialised for a particular body function.

tissue expander A device that may be used in breast reconstruction after mastectomy if a woman does not have quite enough skin left to cover a breast implant .

tissue typing Tissue typing is done when a bone marrow or organ transplant is being planned. It involves looking at the tissues of both the potential donor and the person receiving the transplant to measure how compatible they are.

titration [ti-tra-tion] In chemotherapy, this means finding the right dose of a chemotherapy drug that will destroy cancer cells most effectively while keeping the effects on normal tissue to a safe, tolerable level.

tolerance If a person takes a particular drug (or medicine) over some time, the drug may gradually become less effective as their body may respond less to it. This is known as drug tolerance. If this happens, it may be necessary either to increase the dose or change to another drug.

tomography [to-mog-ra-phy] The technique of building up cross-sectional pictures (pictures showing a slice through) of an organ or part of the body, using x-rays : see CT scan

total body irradiation Radiotherapy to the entire body so that, theoretically, all cells in the body receive the same amount (or dose) of radiation.

trachea [tra-che-a] The windpipe; the stiffened tube through which air passes to reach the lungs : see bronchus.

tracheostomy [tra-che-os-to-my] A surgical operation after the voice box (larynx ) has been removed, usually because of cancer, in which a hole (or stoma ) is made through the front of the neck into the windpipe (trachea), in order to create a clear airway through which the person will breathe permanently. This may also be part of a laryngectomy operation.
trans cutaneous electric nerve stimulation (TENS) A technique used to relieve pain using a weak electric current, the impulses of which produce a mild tingling sensation.

transfusion Where blood or blood products (plasma, particular blood cells) taken from a healthy person are given to someone whose blood is in some way deficient. The blood drips slowly through a needle directly into one of the recipient's veins. A cancer patient may receive a transfusion of red blood cells that carry oxygen, granulocytes (a type of white blood cell ) that fight infection, or platelets that help the blood to clot. Blood transfusions are also routinely given during many major operations

transitional cells Cells lining some organs.

transurethral resection (TUR) [trans-u-reth-ral re-sec-tion] Removal, via the penis, of a tumour in the bladder or the prostate . No cut to the skin is needed as an instrument is inserted through the urethra. TUR can be used only for very small

tumours: see resection.

tumour A new or abnormal growth of tissue in or on the body. A tumour may be benign (not a cancer) or malignant (a cancer). The term 'neoplasm ' usually describes malignant tumours .

tumour marker A substance which, if found in the body, suggests that there may be a tumour present.

TUR see transurethral resection.

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ulcer A break in the skin or in the mucous membrane lining the alimentary tract that fails to heal. It is often accompanied by inflammation

ulcerative colitis [ul-cer-a-tive co-li-tis] see colitis.

ultrasound, ultrasound scan Sound waves of a very high frequency, higher than the human ear can hear. Ultrasound can be used to examine structures within the body by using an ultrasound scan. If ultrasound is directed at the body, it is reflected back differently by different types of tissue. In an ultrasound scan, these differences are measured and used to build up pictures of structures inside the body. Ultrasound scans are useful in diagnosing cancer.

ultraviolet radiation (UVR) The part of sunlight that causes sunburn and skin damage. Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and does not feel hot. It is radiation of short wave length, beyond the violet end of visible light. Skin cancer and skin damage are caused mainly by UVR.

ureter The tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.

urethra The tube through which urine leaves the body. It empties urine from the bladder.

urinary tract [u-rin-a-ry tract] The collection of ducts and channels that take urine from the kidneys to the outside of the body and includes the ureters, bladder, and urethra.

urine Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra.

urologist [u-rol-o-gist] A doctor specialising in diseases of the urinary tract in both males and females, and of the genital organs in males

urostomy An operation to create an opening from inside the body to the outside, making a new way to pass urine.

urothelium The membrane lining the bladder.

uterine cancer [u-te-rine can-cer] Cancer of the uterus, including cancer of the endo-metrium, the lining of the uterus. It is the sixth most common cancer among women in Victoria, and the most common gynaecological cancer, usually occurring in post-menopausal women. Treatment is usually surgery. Sometimes called endometrial cancer.

uterine fibroid [u-te-rine fi-broid] see fibroid.

uterus [u-te-rus] (adj. uterine) The womb ; the hollow, muscular organ which, during pregnancy, holds and nourishes the developing child.

UVA, UVB Forms of ultraviolet radiation

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vaginal cancer [va-gi-nal can-cer] Cancer of the vagina is uncommon. It is more common in women whose mothers took the drug diethylstilboestrol (DES) during pregnancy. Treatment is usually surgery, sometimes combined with radiotherapy (often using radioactive implants ). If the vagina needs to be removed surgically, it may be possible to have it reconstructed by plastic surgery : see reconstructive surgery.

venous access device [ve-nous] see intravenous access device

vocal cords see larynx

voice box see larynx .

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white blood cells One of the two main types of cell present in blood . There are three major groups of mature white blood cells: granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes. Granulocytes and monocytes are formed in the bone marrow (myeloid tissue), and lymphocytes are formed in the lymph nodes. The white blood cells play a major role in defending the body against infection. Also known as leucocytes : see blood cells .

Wilm's tumour A rare cancer that affects children. It can arise anywhere in the kidney and can spread to the bowel and liver. It is one of the most curable of childhood cancers.